During my training as a citizenship teacher, I was introduced to critical pedagogy, an educational approach that urges students to critically examine society, question dominant narratives, and recognise the power structures shaping their lives.
It is rooted in the belief that education should not just impart knowledge but also foster critical thinking and encourage social change. This aligns well with the aims of citizenship education, which seeks to embed democratic engagement and empower young people as agents of change (McCowen, 2006).
However, as a teacher trainer responsible for organising and delivering training for trainee and early career teachers, I seldom get to mention critical pedagogy in my training sessions.
Despite Ofsted briefly recognising its relevance to RE in appendix C of its subject research review (Ofsted, 2021), it is absent from the Department for Education’s Initial Teacher Training and Early Career Framework (DfE, 2024) and remains somewhat out of favour in teacher education, especially after previous governmental opposition to what was termed “the blob”.
Critical pedagogy is also rarely discussed in popular education books or on social media, where there are often dismissive comments.
Daisy Christodoulou's book Seven Myths About Education (2014) is an example, where critical pedagogy is dismissed in favour of ED Hirsch's advocacy for knowledge-rich curricula. Although I have read and appreciated Hirsch’s work, I don’t entirely agree with him or with Christodoulou’s dismissal of critical pedagogy. There are valuable arguments from both perspectives that can enhance my teaching.
The origins of critical pedagogy
Paulo Freire, a Brazilian educator, is often credited with founding critical pedagogy. In Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970; 2017), Freire argued that traditional education often reflects oppressive societal structures, creating passive learners.
In contrast, critical pedagogy promotes active participation and dialogue, allowing students to become co-creators of knowledge. Bell Hooks (1994) expanded on Freire’s ideas, highlighting the importance of love, care, and community in education, and stressing that teaching should be a performance where students feel valued and empowered.
Despite its democratic nature, critical pedagogy’s roots in Marxist theory and associations with the Frankfurt School's focus on cultural hegemony may make it less appealing to modern policy-makers. Furthermore, Hooks’ alignment with feminist intersectionality might seem too progressive for some. However, I believe that critical pedagogy’s core ideas can be applied broadly to challenge inequality, prejudice, and the status quo. It empowers students, allowing them to articulate their concerns and relate these to the curriculum.
The impact of critical pedagogy
Recent research highlights the importance of critical pedagogy across various educational contexts, showing that integrating these approaches in English, STEM education, humanities and the social sciences can foster inclusive and transformative learning experiences, enabling students to challenge dominant societal narratives by checking facts, evaluating empirical evidence, and debating ideas (Yandell & Brady, 2021; Galamba & Gandolfi, 2023; Matemba, 2023).
Other studies suggest incorporating critical pedagogy into educational practices can enhance ethical thinking and political responsibility, preparing students to address contemporary societal and global challenges in various subject areas (see for example, Ipgrave & Cush, 2020).
Key areas where critical pedagogy can make a significant difference to students’ learning include the following.
Empowerment and agency: Critical pedagogy empowers students by validating their experiences and encouraging them to question the status quo. This sense of agency should enable students to become active participants in their communities and society at large. Research shows that students engaged in critical pedagogy are more likely to become socially and politically active, championing social justice, environmental sustainability, and human rights (McLaren, 2003). This is particularly evident in subjects with contested worldviews or ethical positions (Goodman, 2018).
Development of critical thinking skills: At its core, critical pedagogy cultivates critical thinking by encouraging students to analyse, critique, and question information. This approach develops essential higher-order thinking skills for problem-solving and decision-making. Giroux (2011) found that students exposed to critical pedagogy improved their analytical abilities, equipping them to engage thoughtfully with complex issues (see also Galamba & Gandolfi, 2023; Matemba, 2023).
Challenging inequality: Critical pedagogy addresses and challenges inequalities in education and society by highlighting issues related to race, class, gender, and power. It motivates students to work towards a more equitable society, promoting multicultural education, anti-racist teaching practices, and inclusive curricula that reflect diverse perspectives (Darder, 2012). In England, the application of critical pedagogy has been crucial in addressing issues of race and social class in education, as seen in efforts to make curricula more accessible in higher education (Bhambra et al, 2018).
Criticisms of critical pedagogy
In addition to Christodoulou’s unease with critical pedagogy, others have raised concerns about the approach, from both oppositional and sympathetic viewpoints.
Critics argue that critical pedagogy is often too theoretical and lacks practical guidance for educators. While the philosophy is inspiring, translating it into concrete teaching practices can be challenging, especially in standardised education systems that emphasise testing and measurable outcomes (Ellsworth, 1989).
Recent studies suggest that while the ideals of critical pedagogy are valuable, teachers often find themselves constrained by rigid curricula and assessment-driven environments that leave little room for the critical dialogue and exploration that this approach requires (Hill, 2021).
Another criticism is that critical pedagogy can introduce bias by encouraging students to adopt a particular ideological perspective. Detractors claim that this approach can lead to the promotion of certain political or social agendas, potentially compromising the objectivity of education (Torres, 1998).
Other researchers highlight concerns about the potential for critical pedagogy to become dogmatic, where certain perspectives are valorised over others, thus replicating the same power imbalances it seeks to challenge (Biesta, 2020).
Nonetheless, I have used my citizenship training, including critical and dialogical pedagogies, in both RE and sociology classes. Although I still feel my lessons are knowledge-rich with well-defined terminology, references to scripture or classic texts as well as evidence-based practices based on cognitive-science, I still apply critical pedagogy to scaffold my students’ interrogation and evaluation of the content taught, as well as, if possible, relate to issues that matter and potentially affect them.
Tips for being a critical educator
For teachers looking to incorporate critical pedagogy into their teaching practices, here are some practical tips to consider:
Create a safe and inclusive environment: A critical pedagogy approach relies on open dialogue and honest discussion. Teachers should strive to create a classroom environment where all students feel safe, respected, and valued. This includes being mindful of diverse perspectives and actively working to include voices that are often marginalised. Furthermore, there should be clear ground rules for discussing sensitive or controversial issues.
Encourage critical reflection: Encourage students to reflect on their own experiences and perspectives. Ask open-ended questions that prompt students to think critically about the world around them. Reflective activities, group discussions, and case studies are excellent tools for fostering critical reflection.
Promote dialogue and collaboration: Critical pedagogy emphasises the importance of dialogue and collaboration. Encourage students to engage in discussions, share their viewpoints, and learn from one another. Socratic questioning and discussion are useful strategies here. Also, if practical and contextually appropriate, collaborative projects and group activities can help students develop communication skills and understand the value of diverse perspectives.
Integrate real-world issues: Bring real-world issues into the classroom to help students connect their learning to the broader social context. Current affairs, social justice topics, local events, and community projects can provide valuable opportunities for students to apply their critical thinking skills to real-world challenges.
Be a reflective practitioner: Critical pedagogy requires educators to be reflective practitioners who are constantly evaluating and refining their teaching practices. Engage in professional development, seek feedback from students, and remain open to learning and growth. Reflecting on my own teaching practice, I regularly seek ways to better integrate critical pedagogy into my RE lessons, ensuring that students are not only learning about religion but also critically engaging with it.
Final thoughts
I am aware and appreciative of the fact that an approach to teaching developed by Marxist thinkers will concern some. However, critical pedagogy offers a powerful framework for colleagues who wish to create transformative learning experiences, particularly in the humanities and social sciences, but elsewhere as well.
Aspects of the approach can be appropriated alongside other methodologies, which critics may be more favourable to, and I feel that the focus can simply be on empowerment, social agency, and critical thinking, as outlined above, without subjecting students to ideological indoctrination.
- Andrew Jones is assistant headteacher at The Reach Free School in Hertfordshire and a regular contributor to SecEd. He has been a teacher for 22 years. Find his previous contributions to SecEd via www.sec-ed.co.uk/authors/andrew-jones
Further information & references
- Bhambra, Gebrial, & Nişancıoğlu: Decolonising the University, Pluto Press, 2018.
- Biesta: Can critical pedagogy be too critical? An exploration of the possibilities and limits of critical pedagogy, Policy Futures in Education (18,1), 2020.
- Christodoulou: Seven Myths About Education, Routledge, 2014.
- Darder: Culture and Power in the Classroom: A critical foundation for the education of bicultural students, Routledge, 2012.
- DfE: Guidance: Initial Teacher Training and Early Career Framework, 2024: www.gov.uk/government/publications/initial-teacher-training-and-early-career-framework
- Ellsworth: Why doesn't this feel empowering? Working through the repressive myths of critical pedagogy, Harvard Educational Review (59,3), 1989.
- Freire: Pedagogy of the Oppressed, Penguin Classics, 2017.
- Galamba & Gandolfi: Critical pedagogies in STEM education: Ideas and experiences from Brazil and the UK, Autografia/British Council, 2023.
- Giroux: On Critical Pedagogy, Bloomsbury, 2011.
- Goodman: Critical religious education (CRE) in practice: Evaluating the reception of an introductory scheme of work, British Journal of Religious Education (40, 2), 2018.
- Hill: Critical pedagogy in neoliberal times: International perspectives on teaching, learning, and schooling, International Journal of Critical Pedagogy (12,1), 2021.
- Hooks: Teaching to Transgress: Education as the Practice of Freedom, Routledge, 1994.
- Ipgrave & Cush: Critical religious education, multiculturalism and the pursuit of truth: Recent developments in England and Wales, British Journal of Religious Education (42,3), 2020.
- Matemba: Critique in religious education, British Journal of Religious Education (45,4), 2023.
- McCowen: Approaching the political in citizenship education: The perspectives of Paulo Freire and Bernard Crick, Educate, (6,1), 2006.
- McLaren: Life in Schools: An introduction to critical pedagogy in the foundations of education, Allyn and Bacon, 2003.
- Ofsted: Research review: Religious education, 2021: www.gov.uk/government/publications/research-review-series-religious-education/research-review-series-religious-education
- Torres: Education, Power, and Personal Biography: Dialogues with critical educators, Routledge, 1998.
- Yandell & Brady: Critical pedagogy and the English classroom, English in Education (55,2), 2021.